“From that time Jesus began to show his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and suffer many things from the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and on the third day be raised” (Matthew 16:21). This is the first passion prediction in the Gospel of Matthew. It occurs after Peter confesses that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of the living God (16:16). Our Lord goes on to predict His passion two more times before He arrives at Jerusalem and Holy Week (Matthew 17:22-23; 20:18-19), and the last of these is the most specific: “See, we are going up to Jerusalem. And the Son of Man will be delivered over to the chief priests and scribes, and they will condemn him to death and deliver him over to the Gentiles to be mocked and flogged and crucified, and he will be raised on the third day” (Matthew 20:18-19).
In spite of this preparation, when the
events finally arrive the disciples are totally unprepared for it. They are not ready for his death and they do
not expect his resurrection. It is puzzling.
After all the disciples believe He is the Son of God and Jesus does many
miraculous things such as even raising the dead. So why don’t Jesus’ multiple predictions of
His death and resurrection register with them?
There are probably several reasons,
and some of them have to do with the basic struggle against sin and
unbelief. However, when we consider the
historical setting of first century A.D. Judaism it is not hard to recognize
one very significant reason. They do not
understand because of the way Jesus contradicts expectations that Jews of this
time had about the Messiah.
I. Old Testament
background
The disciples believe that Jesus is
the Christ (Messiah in Hebrew, which means “anointed one”). The Old Testament provides the foundation for
understanding the Messiah. We find there
that the Messiah is the fulfillment of God’s promise that David will never lack
a descendant on the throne (2 Sam 7:12-16; 1 Chr 17:11-14; cf. Jer 33:17; Ps
89:3-4, 34-36; 132:10-12). This Davidic
descendant is Yahweh’s “son” (2 Sa 7:14; Ps 2:7) and the Messiah (Ps 2:2) is
the one who subdues and possesses the nations (2:8-12; cf. Ps 72:8-17; 110:1).
Isa 11:1-9 provides a remarkable
description of the Messiah and it would exert a great influence on later
messianic contemplation. The Messiah is
described as a descendant of David and the one upon whom the Spirit rests in a
unique way (Isa 11:1-2). He will rule
and judge righteously (Isa 11:3-5), and he will destroy the wicked: “He shall
strike the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips he
shall kill the wicked” (11:4). His impact extends beyond humanity as he brings
peace to creation itself (11:6-9).
This same figure is also clearly
described in verses that don’t actually include the term “Messiah.” Jeremiah
says that God will raise up for David a righteous Branch (צֶמַח צַדִּיק), and tells of how he
shall reign as king and deal wisely, executing justice and righteousness in the
land. (cf. Jer 33:15; “Branch” Zech 3:8; 6:12).
Ezekiel says that Yahweh will raise up his servant David (34:23;
37:24-25) who is a prince (נָשִׂיא) (34:24; 37:25) and will be their shepherd (34:23; 37:24). He
will deliver them from the nations (34:27-29). In the same way Zechariah
describes how this one will bring peace and will rule “from sea to sea, and
from the River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:9-10).
A Jew living in the second temple period
(fifth century B.C. to first century A.D.) who looked to God’s Word found a
fairly clear impression about what the Messiah would look like. The Davidic Messiah was the warrior king who
would destroy the enemies of Israel
and institute an era of unending (cosmic) peace and righteousness.
When we consider Jewish messianic expectation
in the second temple period, it is necessary to immediately emphasize that we
are really talking about expectations.
Earlier scholarship had believed there was a fixed system of messianic
belief and expectation. They created a
messianic synthesis from later texts and viewed the first century A.D. through
that lens. However more recent
scholarship has demonstrated that there was no one messianic belief. A range of beliefs were present in second temple Judaism
at the same time. In fact, we can
identify five of them.
II. No messianic expectation
The first belief will probably surprise
us. It appears that some Jews had no
messianic expectation. There is
virtually no extant evidence that indicates the presence of messianism from the
early fifth to the late second century BC.
Considering the sporadic nature of available texts, we can ask whether the
absence of evidence means that there was an absence of messianic expectation. Surely there must have been people like
Simeon and Anna. No doubt there
were. But at the same time we cannot
dismiss the fact that nobody talked about it in the texts we have and so it
seems unlikely that it was a pressing hope or expectation among those who
produced these texts. This probability
is strengthened when we note that the appearance of evidence for messianic
expectation corresponds to the rise of Hasmonean rule (164-63 BC), as
individuals who did not descend from David (and never made any such claim)
began to rule an independent Israel
after the revolt against the Seleucids.
III. Davidic King
The second belief was the expectation of a
Davidic king. The Psalms of Solomon (post 63 BC) ask God to raise up a son
of David to rule Israel and “to purge Jerusalem from Gentiles … to smash the
arrogance of sinners like a potter’s jar; to shatter all their substance with
an iron rod; to destroy the unlawful nations with the word of his mouth”
(17:22-23). This Messiah (17:32; 18:5,
7) will reign as king in a just and righteous rule.
He will purge Jerusalem and make it holy (17:30) even as He
judges the peoples and nations (17:29) and “will have the gentile nations
serving him under his yoke” (17:30).
Rather striking from a Christian perspective is the assertion that the
Messiah will be free from sin (17:35).
The Psalms of Solomon is usually viewed as reaction to both
Hasmonean rule and Pompey’s conquest of Palestine
in 63 BC. It is easy to see how it
reflects the basic orientation of the Old Testament.
A very similar, though far more
eschatologically orientated expectation, is found at Qumran. The Damascus Document (CD) says that
“Messiah of Aaron and Israel”
will appear at the end of days (12:23; 14:19; 19:10 [B]; 20:1) and inaugurate
the eschaton. The text 4Q285 (related to
the War Scroll) mentions Isa 11:1 and then adds how the Branch of David
(cf. Ez 34:24; 37:25) and the Prince of the Congregation (cf. Ez 34:24; 37:25)
will go into battle. Florigelium
(4QFlor) uses 2 Sa 7:12-14 and identifies David’s offspring in this text as the
Branch of David who will arise to save Israel (4QFlor 1-13)
The Damascus Document CD 7:19 (A) also
quotes Num 24:17 and describes the scepter in the verse as the prince of the
whole congregation who arises to destroy the sons of Seth. At Qumran a Davidic
king was expected who would slay the wicked and the nations in an
eschatological war, and usher in an era of peace and justice.
IV. Priestly Messiah
The third belief was the expectation of a second
Messiah who would be a priest.
The Damascus Document (CD) says that
the “Messiah of Aaron and Israel” will appear at the end of days (12:23; 14:19;
19:10 [B]; 20:1) It was noted by scholars that linguistically it was possible
to read this as two messiahs.
This reading was confirmed when the Community Rule (1QS) was
discovered which explicitly referred to the “Messiahs of Aaron and Israel”
(9:11). In 1QS the priestly messiah
plays a more central role in the eschatological war and banquet (he takes the
bread and wine before the Messiah of Israel; 1QSa2:17-22).
If we ask regarding the basis for this expectation,
we first note that priests were anointed in the Old Testament (Lev. 4:3, 5,
etc.). In the post-exilic book of
Zechariah there is a reference to “two sons of oil” (Zech 4:11-12). Though this
is a challenging text, it may have played a role. There is diffuse evidence that such a belief
was present in Judaism (though some of it is quite problematic). In Jubilees
31:11-20 (second century B.C.) both Levi and Judah are singled out for a
blessing and Levi is blessed first.
Aramaic Levi (a
precursor to the Testament of Levi in Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs)
seems to attribute messianic functions to Levi. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (which
is laced with Christian interpolations) has two messianic figures in T. Levi
18 and T. Judah 24. This appears
to be a pattern that developed in the post-exilic period when a high priest was
present but there was no king as Israel was ruled by foreign powers. Though it may have existed elsewhere, the one
place where have certain and clear evidence for this belief is Qumran. Binary messianism of priest and king (Aaron
and Israel) is usually taken to be the norm at Qumran, and is the most
distinctive feature of Qumran messianism.
V. Prophetic Messiah
The fourth belief was the expectation of a
prophetic Messiah. There are several Old
Testament texts that speak about an eschatological prophet or invite this
understanding. In Deut 18:15 Moses describes himself as a prophet and says that the Lord will
raise up for them a prophet like him from among Israel. The Pentateuch ends by noting that such a
prophet had not yet arisen (Deut 34:10-12).
Mal 3:1 states, “Behold, I send
my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. And the Lord whom you seek
will suddenly come to his temple” and then Mal 4:5 adds, “Behold, I will send
you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of the LORD comes.” However, apart from Sirach 48:10 (which says
that Elijah will calm God’s wrath and turn the heart of parents to their
children), Malachi’s prophecies were rarely cited in the Hellenistic period.
Expectation of this Elijah existed, but we do not have evidence that it was
widespread.
Unlike kings and priests, prophets were not
usually anointed. However, Yahweh did
tell Elijah to anoint Elisha (1 Ki 19:6).
This provided a precedent for describing a prophet as an “anointed one”
(a messiah). Sirach 48:8 says, “You
anointed kings to inflict retribution, and prophets to succeed you.” The
Dead Sea Scrolls also call prophets “anointed ones” (CD 2:12; 6:1; 1QM
11:7). A most intriguing piece of
evidence from Qumran is 4Q251 (fragment 2 ii). It begins by saying “heaven and earth will
obey his messiah” (1). Then it goes on
to state “The Lord will do as he s[aid] for he will heal the wounded, give life
to the dead and preach good news to the poor” (11-12) (cf. Isa 61:1, “The
Spirit of the Lord GOD is upon me, because the LORD has anointed me to bring
good news to the poor.”). The parallel
with Isa 61:1 and habit of calling prophets “messiahs” seems to indicate that
the messiah of line 1 is the anointed eschatological prophet.
We have seen that Moses spoke of how God
would raise up a prophet like him (Deut 18:15).
This may provide the background for a number of figures who have been
described in scholarship as “sign prophets.” Josephus recounts a series “false
prophets” (also called “charlatans” and “impostors”) who showed up in Israel. Theudas
at the time of Fadus promised to part the Jordan River (Ant. 20.97-98).
There were individuals at the time of Felix who led people into wilderness
promising tokens of deliverance (Ant. 20:167-168). An Egyptian at the time of Felix promised to
make the walls of Jerusalem fall (Ant. 20.169-171). Finally, an individual at the time Festus
told people to come into wilderness where he would give them rest (Ant. 20.188).
All of these figures promised some kind of recapitulation of God’s mighty
action in the exodus. They appear to
have anticipated some kind of eschatological redemption. Nothing in Josephus’
account indicates they claimed to be “messianic.” However, Josephus has his own
agenda because of the way he had “prophesied” about his captor and patron
Vespasian. It is entirely possible that
these individuals considered themselves to be anointed by the Spirit in the
manner described by Isa 61.
VI. Heavenly Messiah
The fifth belief was the expectation of a heavenly
Messiah. The Old Testament background for this is Dan 7:13, “I saw in the night
visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man
(כְּבַר אֱנָשׁ ), and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before
him.” The Similtudes of Enoch (1 Enoch 37-41) (first century AD)
contains numerous references to “son of Man” (46:3; 48:2; 62:5, etc.). This same figure is also called “Chosen One”
(39:6, 40:5; 45:3, 4, etc.), “Righteous One” (38:2; 53:6) and “Anointed One”
(48:10; 52:4). In these texts
“son of Man” is not yet a title. At the
same time the “son of Man”/Messiah is clearly divine. He is pre-existent (48:3; 62:7), sits on
God’s throne (61:1; 62:5) and is the object of worship (48:5; 62:9). He is a powerful figure who judges fallen
angels (55:4), angels (61:8), kings (62:3ff) and removes kings from their
thrones (46:4-5).
This same expectation is found in two
documents that date to the end of the first century AD after the destruction of
the temple in 70 AD. 4 Ezra (post-70
AD) suggests that “my son the Messiah” is pre-existent (7:28). This Messiah reigns for 400 years and then
dies (7:29-33). After seven days of
primeval silence the resurrection occurs (7:31-32). In the Eagle vision (ch.
11) and the Man from the Sea vision (ch 13) we learn that the Messiah descends
from David, and will defeat Rome and those who oppose him. The Man from the Sea vision has strong
parallels to Dan ch. 7. If we ask how
the Messiah can be pre-existent and also descend from David, we find the only
answer to be that apocalyptic literature is not known for its logical
consistency.
In 2 Baruch the Messiah is
pre-existent (29:3). He initiates a messianic
interregnum of abundance (29:3-8). When
the time of the Messiah has been fulfilled he returns to God with glory and then
the resurrection occurs (30:1-5). We
learn that the Messiah will destroy the fourth evil kingdom (ch 39). This figure judges kings and nations, and
protects his people (ch 40; 70:9-73:7).
VII. A historical example
We have a historical example of what this
messianic expectation could look like in the Bar Kochba revolt (132-135 AD). Simon Bar Kosiba led a revolt that was
prompted by Hadrian’s plan to make Jerusalem into pagan city (Aelia
Capitolina), his ban on circumcision and also perhaps by economic factors. We learn that Rabbi Akiba explained Num
24:17’s “a star (kochba) shall go forth from Jacob” as “Kosiba goes forth from
Jacob” and hailed him as, “This is the King Messiah” (jTacanit 68d).
We do not know for certain whether Simon Bar
Kosiba consider himself to be the Messiah.
Some coins minted by the revolt bear a star and documents and coins call
him “prince of Israel” (which had a long
history as messianic title). The Romans
eventually put down the revolt in action that produced heavy loss of life for both
sides. Simon was killed in a last stand.
Instead of calling him Bar Kochba (“son of the star”), later Jewish tradition calls him “Bar Koziba”
(“son of the lie”) as a false messiah.
VIII. The paradox of
Jesus the Christ
While there is great diversity in
these expectations, they share some significant common themes that were true in
first century AD Judaism. First, the
Messiah was an eschatological figure.
Second, the Messiah was expected to triumph over all opposition on
behalf of Israel or God’s elect, and to inaugurate peace and justice for God’s
people. Third, it was very easy for Jews
in the first century AD to recognize a false messiah. This status became apparent when the Romans
killed him. The fact was clearer still
if the Romans captured and crucified him since in this time period the curse of
Deut. 21:23 was applied to individuals who were crucified (cf. Gal 3:13, “Christ
redeemed us from the curse of the law by becoming a curse for us—for it is
written, ‘Cursed is everyone who is hanged on a tree’”).
Therefore, when Jesus predicted that
he would suffer and die by crucifixion it contradicted all of the basic assumptions
that first century AD Judaism held about the Messiah. The paradox of Jesus the Christ is that the
Davidic Messiah and the Suffering Servant of Isa ch 53 are the same
individual. There was nothing in the
expectation of this time that would have led his hearers to connect these two
(cf. 1 Pet 1:10-12). It was only when the
death and resurrection had been accomplished and Jesus Christ revealed this to
his disciples (cf. Luke 24:13-27, 44-49) that this could be understood.
The unity of these two roles was found
in the descent of the Spirit at Jesus’ baptism (Matt 3:17) (explicitly
described as an “anointing” in Acts 10:38).
In chapter one Matthew has demonstrated that Jesus is the Christ, the
Son of David. Now, God puts his Spirit
upon the shoot from the stump of Jesus as Isa 11:1-2 had described. Yet at the same time, in doing so, he identifies
Jesus as the Servant in fulfillment of the words, “Behold my servant, whom I
uphold, my chosen, in whom my soul delights; I have put my Spirit upon him”
(Isaiah 42:1 ESV) (cf. Matt 12:18).
The unity of roles also existed
because of the manner in which both Israel and the Messiah were God’s son. God had described Israel as his son in Exo
4:22 and had called the Messiah his son in 2 Sa 7:14. Jesus is not just God’s “son” in an adopted
sense but in fact is God’s Son in the full ontological sense of the Holy Trinity. As the Davidic Messiah (the Christ), he is
God’s Son. Yet he is also God’s Son in
that he is Israel reduced to One.
Matthew explicitly makes this point when he quotes Hos 11:1 (a text which
speaks about Israel) and applies it to Jesus’ presence in Egypt: “This was to
fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet, “Out of Egypt I called my son”
(Matthew 2:15). Just as Israel is the
Servant (Isa 41:8), so also Jesus the Christ is the Servant who goes to the
cross as the suffering Servant of Isaiah chapter 53 and fulfils the words: “But
he was pierced for our transgressions; he was crushed for our iniquities; upon
him was the chastisement that brought us peace, and with his wounds we are
healed” (Isaiah 53:5).
At the same
time, as the resurrected Lord who will return in glory on the Last Day he is
the fulfillment of the mighty description found in Isa ch. 11. He is the One who will judge righteously and destroy
the wicked (Isa 11:3-5). He is the One who
brings the cosmic peace of the renewed creation (Isa 11:6-8; cf. Matt
19:28). He brings the day when, “They
shall not hurt or destroy in all my holy mountain; for the earth shall be full
of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea” (Isaiah 11:9).
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